tioman oceanography

Malaysia closes diving reefs to save coral

2011-12-04T12:24:00.000-08:00

Malaysia closes diving reefs to save coral

Malaysia has closed several of its world-famous diving sites including those surrounding the tropical islands of Tioman and Redang because authorities claim the coral is being killed off by global warming.

A scuba diver swims above coral reefs near Malaysia's Tioman island Photo: CORBIS

Twelve reefs that attract half a million tourists from around the world annually are now closed to divers and snorkellers until the end of October to allow the corals to recover from bleaching caused by warmer seas.

Abdul Jamal Mydin, director general of the Department of Marine Parks, said that the temperature of the seas has risen to 88F (31C) in recent months, up 4F (2C) from the normal level.

Up to 90 per cent of the coral has started to turn white meaning it is dying off, threatening the delicate ecosystem.

"We expect [the corals] to recover or at least improve." Mr Abdul Jamal said The Department of Marine Parks claimed the damaged coral was solely the result of rising sea temperatures and not tourism activities.

However, Mr Abdul Jamal explained that by banning diving, the coral will be given time to regenerate naturally.

The closures are likely to affect tourism revenue over the summer, but authorities argue the priority is to safeguard one of the country's main attractions – its coral reefs.

Environmentalists welcomed the closures, but stated that both climate change and tourism are to blame for the dying corals.
"In Malaysia, corals are facing a vast variety of threats even without the coral bleaching episodes, like uncontrolled tourism," said Yeap Chin Aik of the Malaysian Nature Society.

The Redang, Perhentian and Tiomon islands – the location for the 1958 film South Pacific – all lie less than 30 miles off the east coast of Malaysia in the South China Sea. They regularly feature in lists of the best diving spots in the world.

Coral reefs species

2011-12-04T12:12:00.000-08:00

Corals are mostly sessile, colonial polyps, although solitary species exist. Coral polyps have tentacles, a mouth, a gastrovascular cavity and are connected to one another by common tissue called coenosarc. The outer, cellular layer of a polyp's tentacles is highly loaded with nematocysts; cells which can fire stinging barbs filled with neurotoxins. This allows corals and anemones to paralyze prey, ranging from small plankton to even small fish, depending on the size of the polyp. The polyp gut is a simple sac, and many coral species actually have guts which are connected together, allowing them to share nutrients. The gut is also the location where its gonads are located. Along the gut mesenteries, ovaries and testes will produce oocytes and spermatocytes, which are released during specific times of the year (for more info on coral anatomy read the article ‘coral reefs, an introduction' on reef.com).

Coral reefs

2011-12-04T12:10:00.000-08:00

How the coral reefs grow

Coral reefs are widely known for their majestic beauty; these porous underwater mountains belong to the most species-rich biotopes on the planet. They are home to countless vertebrate and invertebrate animals, and have been documented and visited by many. These unique ecosystems have been created by the combined forces of billions of tiny invertebrate animals; the coral polyps. After many scientific studies, it has become clear how these animals have been able to create a Garden of Eden from virtually nothing.

Coral polyps; the bringers of life

ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

2011-09-22T12:40:00.000-07:00

Ecosystems management is an approach to natural resource management that focuses on sustaining ecosystems to meet both ecological and human needs in the future. Ecosystem management is adaptive to changing needs and new information. It promotes shared vision of a desired future by integrating social, environmental and economic perspectives to managing geographically defined natural ecological systems.
Ecosystems promote human well being through the various services they provide.
One of the six priorities of the UNEP medium‑term strategy for 2010–2013 is that “countries utilize the ecosystem approach to enhance human well-being”. The UNEP Ecosystem Management Programme is centred on the functioning and resilience of the ecosystems and the services they provide. The programme aims to support countries and regions to:

increasingly integrate an ecosystem management approach into development and planning processes;
acquire the capacity to use ecosystem management tools; and
realign their environmental programmes and financing to tackle the degradation of selected priority ecosystem services.

The programme is guided by five major interlinked elements: human well-being, indirect and direct drivers of change, ecosystem functioning and ecosystem services. As ecosystem services are interlinked and cannot be treated in isolation, UNEP promotes a holistic perspective for dealing with bundles of interlinked services to reverse their decline through improved ecosystem functioning and increased resilience. The services fall under the following categories: regulating, provisioning, supporting and cultural services

The UNEP programme focuses on 11 of the 15 degraded ecosystem services mainly comprising:
Regulating services: climate, water, natural hazard and disease regulation, water purification and waste treatment, which are often strongly affected by the overuse of provisioning services;
Provisioning services: freshwater, energy (especially the emerging issues around biofuel production) and capture fisheries;
Cultural services: Recreation and ecotourism service;
Supporting services: nutrient cycling and primary production which underlie the delivery of all the other services but are not directly accessible to people.

Selection of Key Ecosystem Services

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the ecosystem services selected by UNEP, as categorized in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (regulating, provisioning, supporting and cultural services).
UNEP provides specialized expertise from different disciplines. These include:

Assessment and monitoring (e.g., indicators, research and access to knowledge);
Risk management;
Management tools e.g., conservation and protection, restoration, sustainable management, legislation, certification;
Ecosystem economics e.g., payments for ecosystem services, incentives and financing mechanisms, valuation, equity and fairness principles;
Governance e.g., international agreements, legislation, policies; and
Capacity-building and technology support.

WATER LIFE & MYSTERY

2011-02-23T03:22:00.000-08:00

What Monsters have really existed in the Sea? Are there any left?

The Webster's dictionary defines the word monster as "an animal of strange or terrifying shape" and "one unusually large for its kind." By this definition, the creatures that dwell in the deep ocean are true monsters. Miles beneath the surface, where sunlight can no longer penetrate, exists an eerie world of cold darkness. This is the abyss. It is a world of strange and sometimes grotesque forms. Some of the animals here have evolved the ability to create their own light with a technique known as bioluminescence. They use their lights to attract prey and ward off predators. There are also creatures here of gigantic proportions. There are also animals here that get all of their nutrients from chemicals in the ocean through a process known as chemosynthesis. This is where the elusive giant squid hunts. It is also where the great sperm whale comes to feed on the giant squid. Here, within the waters of our own planet, lies an alien world of wonders.
Over the centuries, the oceans have given birth to many myths, legends, mysteries and events still not completely explained by mankind. Contrary to popular belief, the sailors of Columbus's day did not think they would sail right off the edge of the earth. They were, however, apprehensive about what they would find in their travels. Mistakes about marine life have ranged from inaccurate assumptions about the behavior of known species to fanciful depictions of animals that "might" exist.

Hercules battled with a hydra in ancient Greek mythology, and this imaginary animal has suffered from a rotten reputation ever since. Unfortunately, the hydra has a living relative, of sorts: the octopus. Even now, misconceptions persist about the octopus (also called the "devil fish"), and it has been doomed to play the villain in more than one B movie. Although this illustration only shows seven heads, the hydra was said to have nine, and two new ones would appear whenever one was chopped off.
Strange as it looks by today's standards, this picture of a dissected head of a giant white shark actually marked significant progress in marine biology. For years, fossilized shark teeth were believed to be tongues of serpents turned to stone by St. Paul, and hence were named glossopetrae, or "tongue stones". Niels Stensen correctly identified tongue stones as shark teeth.

Alexander Winchell suggested that , "the unexplored depths of the ocean conceal the forms of octopods that far surpass in magnitude any of the species known to science." Winchell was right on both counts.

In the 16th century, two naturalists, Rondelet and Pierre Belon, produced descriptions of animals they termed the Sea Monk, or monk-fish. Centuries later, a very talented naturalist, Japetus Steenstrup, gave a presentation in which he compared Rondelet's illustration (on the left) and Belon's illustration (on the right) to the likeness of a squid captured in 1853. He also took into consideration a 16th-century description of the Sea Monk by Conrad Gesner. Steenstrup made an amazing deduction: "Could we, given these bits of information of how the Monk was conceived at that time, come so near to it that we could recognize to which of nature's creatures it should most probably be assigned? The Sea Monk is firstly a cephalopod."

The Giant Squid
On a December day in 1848, the sailing ship Pekin was becalmed off the Cape of Good Hope near Southern Africa when a crew member spotted a strange creature in the water. Careful examination of the animal by use of a telescope revealed it to be snake-like, with a large head and shaggy mane.

Only two months before the HMS Daedulus had reported seeing a sea serpent in that very same region. Amid great excitement a small boat, it's crew prepared to capture the animal, was lowered into the water. The captain, Frederic Smith, watched from a distance, with concern for the safety of his men, as the small boat approached the creature. To the Captain's surprise the animal did not move at all as the boat drew near. He was even more surprised when the crew of the boat proceeded to tow the "creature" back to the Pekin.

The sea serpent turned out to be a twenty foot long piece of floating seaweed with a root shaped like a head and neck. Could the Daedulus sea serpent been of similar origin?

Judging distance, size and motion of an object in the sea is extremely difficult. Objects on land can be compared to nearby trees and boulders. In the water only the waves offer a clue to scale and the size of waves vary enormously depending on weather conditions.

The movement of the waves can also suggest motion where there is none. Arthur Adams, a ship's surgeon in the 1860's, spotted what appeared to be a mysterious creature moving through the water by using lateral undulations of it's body. His ship's course was altered to intercept the animal and capture it. When they approached the thing Adam's wrote:

"By this time, however, a closer and more critical inspection had taken place, and the supposed sea monster had turned himself into a long, dark root, gnarled and twisted, of a tree, secured to the moorings of a fishing net, with a strong tide passing it rapidly, and thus giving it an apparent life-like movement and serpentine aspect."

The Daedulus affair might also be explained by an abandoned native canoe painted like a snake. L. Sprague de Camp suggested the owners of the canoe may have harpooned a large sea animal, like a whale shark, and they were either spilled into the sea when the animal surfaced under the boat, or jumped in panic when they could not cut the line dragging the canoe.

The Oarfish
One unusual, real creature that might be mistaken for a sea monster is the oarfish. The oarfish, Regalecus glesne, is a strange eel-like animal that has been measured at up to 25 feet in length. Some reports have described specimens twice that size. The oarfish is bright silver in color and has a high, bright red crest of spikes running down the back of it's snake-like body. It's strange startling appearance has led it to be identified as a monster on at least one occasion: Two men were gathering seaweed on the coast of Bermuda in 1860 when they came across a serpent-like creature stranded in the rocks. They killed it and they animal was reported as a sea serpent until a naturalist eventually showed up and identified the creature for what it really was.

An unusual species of frilled shark, Chlamydoselachus anguineus, might also be taken for a sea serpent. Like the oarfish it is eel-shaped. It has a single dorsal fin placed well back along the body which can appear as a mane. The frilled shark has an ancient history and is almost a living fossil. It would truly be a likely candidate for a sea serpent if it was only a little larger. So far the largest known frilled shark was only six feet nose-to-tale. If there is a larger relative of this animal swimming in the seas it might well be identified as a sea serpent.

In 1880 Captain S. W. Hanna netted a long eel-like shark that measured some 25 feet. While not matching the description of Chlamydoselachus anguineus exactly, it probably is a close relative and suggests there may be some giant frilled sharks in the sea that could be taken for sea serpents.

One dangerous candidate as a sea monster is the salt water crocodile. These creatures, living in the India Ocean and the area around southeast Asia and Australia have been measured to lengths of 18 feet and weighing almost a ton. Unconfirmed reports indicate they may get as long as thirty feet. They are hungry, aggressive and often attack people.

The giant squid may account for some sea serpent sightings too. Giant squids probably qualify as sea monsters just as they are: Growing up to fifty feet long with ten arms and eyes over a foot in diameter. If the cone shaped squid head was sticking out of the water near or close to a visible arm the squid might look like a serpent head and tail from a distance. (A famous serpent sighting off of Greenland, by Hans Egede, in 1745 may be explained this way). Also a single tentacle with a club of suckers on the end might look like the head and neck of a Pleisosaur.

In 1875 the barque Pauline spotted a sperm whale with a snake-like creature wrapped around it's mid-section. The crew reported this sea serpent eventually dragged the whale down to it's death. More likely the "snake" was the arm of a large squid in battle with the whale.

Even mundane sea animals may be mistaken for sea monsters. Fish or dolphins traveling together in a line may appear as a series of undulating humps with dorsal fins. Even a mass of low flying birds skimming across the water at a distance have been mistaken for a single sea serpent.

The basking shark is one creature that is more likely to be mistaken for a sea monster after it is dead, rather than when it was alive. Basking sharks are the second largest fish in the sea and grow to lengths of 40 feet. Like the great blue whale they are harmless filter feeders with enormous mouths. The shark skims the surface of ocean eating tiny floating plankton. The water exits the shark's mouth through large gill slits on the side of the head.

Because the gills of the basking shark rot quickly after death the carcass can give the appearance of having a long, narrow neck (like a pleisosaur) without the head. Several basking shark remains have been misidentified as sea monsters.

Some sea monster reports may not involve just unusual creatures, but usual conditions. Right before a storm at sea, air of two different temperatures can form layers just above the surface of the sea. Perhaps seven or eight feet above the waves the different density of the two layers can cause light to bounce forming a mirage. In this case the mirage causes objects to be elongated, as if by a fun house mirror, vertically, but not horizontally. Seals, whales and dolphins breaking the surface under these conditions will appear as thin, tall, unknown creatures.

Norse men often spotted these creatures and took their appearance as an omen warning of an impending storm. Because of the strange atmospheric conditions, rather than anything supernatural, this warning was accurate.

The Mermaids: fact or fantasy?
Stories of Mermaids have been told for centuries, be it in the form of folklores, legends or fairy tales. Images of this creature have plagued artists and writers in their efforts to bring to life the mystery, beauty, and yes, eroticism of the mermaid to their audiences. Some still claim, even today, that they exist: see FIRST-EVER PHOTOS OF A MERMAID! Image Of Half-Woman Half-Fish Dazzles Tourists In Hawaii!

The mermaid and merman legends begin with the worship of gods as have many mythologies. This information has been divided into three different categories to help save time in your browsing and to establish simple guidelines to see different periods in the mythology of mermaids. The earliest representations and descriptions of these now well-known creatures can be traced back as far as the eighth century BC.

The Three Stages of the Mermaids Mythology
1. Merfolk as Gods - a look at the birth of the mermaid mythology and how it began as pagan water deities and supernatural female water beings.

2. Merfolk and Christianity - the role of the mermaid mythology changed significantly with the growth of the Christian Church, this is a look at how and why the myth survived when so many other pagan deities didn't and what the new role of the mermaid was.

3. Merfolk and the Rise of Science - for a long time the mermaid was believed to have existed even by educated men, with the rise of science and the Enlightenment the tides turned back to try and disprove the existence of such a creature as the mermaid. This being done the role of mermaids changed yet again.

Merfolk as Gods
The Babylonians were known to worship a sea-god called Oannes, or Ea. Oannes was reputed to have risen from the Erythrean Sea and taught to man the arts and sciences. In the Louvre today can be seen an eighth century wall-scene depicting Oannes as a merman, with the fish-like tail and the upperbody of a man.

The Syrians and the Philistines were also known to have worshiped a Semitic mermaid moon-goddess. The Syrians called her Atargatis while the Philistines knew her as Derceto. It is not unusual or surprising that this moon-goddess was depicted as a mermaid as the tides ebbed and flowed with the moon then as it does now and this was incorporated into the god-like personifications that we find in their art and the ancient literature. Atargatis is one of the first recorded mermaids and the legend says that her child Semiramis was a normal human and because of this Atargatis was ashamed and killed her lover. Abandoning the infant she became wholly a fish.

However, not all ancient water gods or spiritual personifications took on the form of a mermaid or a merman all of the time. Water-nymphs for example can be mistaken for mermaids, they are beautiful in their appearance and are also musically talented, which mermaids are well known for, be it their singing or playing of a musical instrument. Sirens too are forever being mistaken for mermaids. Even the ancient writers and medieval Bestiary writers would get the two confused or mention only one when in fact both have to be mentioned to make sense of the literatures and archaeological evidence. This is discussed again below, where one can also see the result of a siren/mermaid illustration. The Siren and the Mermaid are two separate entities, one having the upper body of a young woman and the lower body of a bird, the other the upper body of a young woman and the lower body of a fish.

The Indians, amongst their many gods, worshiped one group of water-gods known as the Asparas, who were celestial flute-playing water-nymphs.

In Japanese and Chinese legends there were not only mermaids but also sea-dragons and the dragon-wives. The Japanese mermaid known as Ningyo was depicted as a fish with only a human head; where as the Polynesian mythology includes a creator named Vatea who was depicted as half-human form and half-porpoise.

Greek and Roman mythology is often placed together as the two are very similar and it is in the literature from these cultures that one finds the first literary description of the mermaid, and indeed the mermen. Homer mentions the Sirens during the voyage of Odysseus but he fails to give a physical description. The image seen here shows an old black and white film of Homer's tale depicting the sirens in mermaid form. Ovid on the other hand writes that the mermaids were born from the burning galleys of the Trojans where the timbers turned into flesh and blood and the 'green daughters of the sea'.

Poseidon and Neptune were often depicted as half-man and half-fish but the most popular motif of the ancient world that depicts mermen was the representations of the tritons, TRITON being the son of the powerful sea-god. A detail of the vase shown and other typical triton motifs can be seen from these periods in the Art Gallery. Besides the vase is the trident, known to have been carried by the sea-god and thought to be magical, the figure of Poseidon in the film Jason and the Argonauts, 1973 is shown with the trident. Specimens of tritons in classical times were said to be found at Tanagara and Rome, according to Pausanias, it is presumed by scholars today that they were fakes, just like those mermaid remains that one could find in the later nineteenth century freak shows, but more information on these later. The Nereids, who were the daughters of Nereus and the Oceanides, who were associated with Ocean and the Naiads who lived in the fresh waters of the ancient world, while being water creatures were depicted as humans and not merpeople.

The British Isles too had their fair share of merfolk mythology. The Cornish knew mermaids as Merrymaids; the Irish knew them as Merrows or Muirruhgach and some sources write that they lived on dry land below the sea and had enchanted caps that allowed them to pass through the water without drowning, while the women were very beautiful the men had red noses, were piggy eyed, with green hair and teeth and a penchant for brandy.

The neck are to be found in Scandanavia, along with the Havfrue (merman) and the Havmand (mermaid), the neck however were able to live in both salt- and fresh-water. The Norwegian mermaid known as Havfine were believed to have very unpredictable tempers. Some were known to be kind, others to be incredibly cruel; it was considered unlucky to view one of these havfine.

The German Mythologies of mermaids are plenty. There are the Meerfrau; the Nix and the Nixe who were the male and female fresh-water inhabitants and it was believed that they were treacherous to men. The nixe lured men to drown while the nix could be in the form of an old dwarfish character or as a golden-haired boy and in Iceland and Sweden could take the form of a centaur. The nix also loved music and could lure people to him with his harp, if he was in the form of a horse he would tempt people to mount him and then dash into the sea to drown them. While he sometimes desired a human soul he would often demand annual human sacrifices. There was also a more elvin kind of Nixies that would sometimes appear in the market, she could be identified by the corner of her apron being wet. If they paid a good price it would be an expensive year but if they paid a low price the prices for that year would remain cheap. In the Rhine were to be found the Lorelei from which the town took its name. The Germans also knew the Melusine as a double-tailed mermaid as did the British heraldry as well. There is a double-tailed mermaid to be found in the Art Gallery.

Russian mythology includes the daughters of the Water-King who live beneath the sea; the water-nymph that drowns swimmers known as the Rusalka and the male water-spirit known as the Vodyany who followed sailors and fishermen.

The Africans believed the tales of a fish-wife and river-witches. What we have seen here is the beginnings of the mermaid mythology that starts with the merman depictions of water-deities and other such pagan deities. The stories of mermaids as one may think of today, were formed after the rise of Christianity.

Merfolk and Christianity
There is a theory that during the suppression of pagan deities the mermaid and other minor supernatural beings were not seen as a threat to the growth and popularity of Christian beliefs. Some writers even go so far as to believe that the Church actually believed in the mermaid mythology, and for two particular reasons; the first is that the mermaid served as a moral emblem of sin, the femme fatale label we know so well was nurtured with this form of thinking; and the second was the quality of evidence from contemporary and ancient authors on the existence of mermaids added to this 'belief' the Church found in mermaids.

The symbol of the mermaid with her comb and mirror in hand seems to first be depicted during the Middle Ages. This came to represent to the Church vanity and female beauty which could cause the destruction of men. And so the mermaid mythology turned from that of near godlike status, including the fear that the sirens brought, to one of aesthetic values. The mermaid became a focus for misogynists and as thus rather than causing fear in the laity the mermaid became even more fascinating.

The Bestiaries of the early middle ages included the siren and not the mermaid. As the two creatures became confused in popular beliefs and cultures so too did the bestiary writers confuse the two, as can be seen in the above illustration of the siren, complete with a mermaids tail. Mermaids were well known in the bestiaries of Physiologus and his predecessors, where they compiled the zoological information of 'real' animals. Mermaid were believed to exist even by the most educated men.

In 1403 a mermaid was apparently found stranded in the mud after a storm in West Friesland. She was then taken, clothed and fed ordinary food. Some say that she lived for fifteen years in capture, trying to escape constantly; she was also taught to kneel before the crucifix and spin but she was never able to speak.

Raphael Holinshed, in his chronicles of 1587 wrote that in the reign of either John or Henry II, some fishers of Oreford in Suffolk, caught a man-shaped fish, who would not or could not speak, ate fish be it raw or cooked and finally escaped after two months, back to the sea. There are detailed accounts of recorded sightings that are mostly from the 1800's that can be read in the Sightings page.

In literature the mermaid began to be used as a description of women, rather than an identification of the creature herself. The mermaid had become a metaphor! Chaucer takes the mermaid and uses her as a scholarly metaphor for beautiful but dangerous song. Shakespeare is known to have used such a device in his Comedy of Errors.

Merfolk and the Rise of Science
With the growth of science, the fantastic became childish amongst the writers of the growing educated, especially during the eighteenth century, but began to flourish again with the Romantic movement at the turn of this century. It was also the time however for the scientifically-minded to do their utmost to dispel the myth of the mermaid, claiming that all the recorded sightings were simply men who'd been at sea too long and wanting to believe, and so when a seal, porpoise, dugong or manatee was spotted from the ship they'd swear they'd seen a mermaid.

It it from the nineteenth century that the reported sightings are so numerous. The sightings page shows where the sightings were and also the accompanying reports. Prominent, well-respected people writing in prominent papers conflict with the scientists apathy to the existence of such a fantastical creature.

Children's stories are filled with mermaids again, and this time they are written down and published. The mermaid figures in art once again allowing the artist to portray the division within human nature of the "animal" sexual nature and the intellectual thinking; represented by the tail of the mermaid and that human part of her that wishes to gain a soul. This is the first period the mention of the mermaid longing for a human soul is found in the history of the mermaid. The prime example being The Little Mermaid by Hans Andersen found in the Faerietales page, where the young mermaid gains a souls through her faithfulness. The mermaid is also seen as an elemental being and other water-beings are written about, such as The Water Babies by Charles Kingsley. The theme of mermaids longing for a mortal man is continued and broadened which can be seen especially in the plays of Peter Blackmore, Miranda and the sequel Mad About Men which were adapted to film and starred Glynis Johns.

It is also the time of frauds and there were many in America during the 1920's and 1930's, with the most famous one being the Feegee mermaid. Japanese freak shows too were notorious for their "mermaids", that merely consisted of the torso of a monkey and the tail of a fish stiched together and advertised as "mermaid corpses."

It is not until the twentieth century that the mermaid is tossed back and forth between those that believe, or want to believe, and those that stand behind their logic and scientific proof that a creature such as the mermaid simply cannot exist. A wonderful film of these two meeting is the film Splash, with Daryl Hannah and Tom Hanks. The mermaid becomes a symbol of fun and fantasy rather than an accepted part of cultural tradition and awe. She is seen as a figure of eroticism mixed with fear of the unknown, or the animal side of her nature. It is a great marketing tool for toys, cartoons, soft-porn, and women's swim wear. No matter how the mermaid is used or what role she plays she will always retain her mysterious air. Perhaps the next move is a more feminine one, bringing back the myth of the mermaid protecting women, or the soul of the woman drowned before her natural time of death....

The Bermuda Triangle: fact or fiction?
A region of the Atlantic Ocean between Bermuda, Miami, Florida, and San Juan, Puerto Rico, where disappearances of ships and planes not only continue but continue to defy explanation. (See Map)

"It was Halloween, 1991. Radar controllers checked and rechecked what they had just seen. The scope was blank in a spot now. Everywhere else all seemed normal. Routine traffic was proceeding undisturbed, in their vectors, tracked and uninterrupted. But just moments earlier they had been tracking a Grumman Cougar jet. The pilot was John Verdi. He and trained co-pilot, Paul Lukaris, were on a flight toward Tallahassee
Moments before Verdi's voice had crackled over the receiver at the flight center: "Uh, this is November two four Whiskey Juliet (N24WJ). I am at, uh, two five three zero zero. Request ascent two niner zero. Over."
Permission was quickly granted. The turbo jet was then seen ascending from 25,300 feet to its cruising altitude of 29,000. All seemed normal.

They were still ascending. Verdi had not yet rogered reaching his new altitude. Radar continued to track the Cougar until, for some unknown reason, it simply faded away. Verdi and Lukaris answered no more calls to respond. They had sent no MAYDAY to indicate a problem. Read-outs of the radar observations confirmed the unusual: The Cougar had not been captured at all descending or falling to the sea. Frankly, it had just vanished while climbing; it simply faded away. One sweep they were there . . . the next?"
Gian J. Quasar, author of Into the Bermuda Triangle says: "Approaching the subject from the back door, so to speak, free of the hype and public forum, has yielded more startling information. For instance, no more than a few disappearances of airplanes have been reported in the last 2 decades, yet mystery has struck with skillful hands. Searches of the database of National Transportation Safety Board reveal some 75 aircraft have gone missing. Projecting Coast Guard statistics on missing boats is truly mind boggling, perhaps reaching over 2,000. Often when faced with what these reports contain, I have come away badly jolted. It has caused me to revise several well-known cases, and has made it possible to present accurate accounts of what has transpired in the last 20 years. These last, I must presume, are here to the public presented for the first time since I know of no other research done in this period."
The Theories
There have been numerous "theories" (more correctly hypotheses) concerning the Bermuda Triangle; Magnetic Variation, Vortex Kinesis, Methane Hydrates, Time & Being and The Hutchison Effect. See what Mr. Quasar has to say.
"Although the Bermuda Triangle looks like just a bucket of water when compared to all the oceans of the world, it does in fact cover approximately 1,500,000 square miles, roughly 500 thousand square leagues of sea." Click here to take a journey through the Bermuda Triangle.
History of the Devil's Triangle
"The region involved, a watery triangle bounded roughly by Florida, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico, measures less than a thousand miles on any one side." ...so George X. Sand introduced the Triangle to his readers in October 1952 in a short article for Fate magazine, entitled "Sea Mystery at our Back Door."

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM CRITERIA

2011-02-23T03:19:00.000-08:00

A good ecotourism operation will strive to support the community and encourage travelers to be culturally sensitive by training and employing local people and by purchasing local supplies and services to further stimulate the economy. Increasingly, national governments such as Costa Rica and Australia are supporting the ecotourism trade for its benefit to both their country and their visitors. Tourist regions in many countries now rely on ecotourism as the primary source of revenue.

The education and good practices taught by ecotourism may also help foster sustainable development in a world increasingly faced by destructive practices such as clear-cutting forests and poor land-use policies that destroy habitats. Good ecotourism should ideally support criteria such as:

Conservation of biological and cultural diversity

Sustainable use of ecological resources

Support for local economies through increased local revenue, jobs for local populations, and use of local supplies and services

Community empowerment by sharing participation in management local ecotourism activities.

Increased environmental and cultural awareness

Minimal environmental tourist industry impact on local resources

Although the overall concept and intent of sustainable tourism is positive, the industry is not without its critics largely due to companies who abuse the concept of ecotourism to take advantage of the wealth generated by the interest in ecotourism. Some ecotourism operators have been accused of masking their environmentally destructive practices by marketing their businesses as ecotourism.

With time, the standards for good ecotourism will be established and both travelers and the industry will be aware of what constitutes an ecologically and culturally sensitive operation.

SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

2011-02-23T03:17:00.000-08:00

Perhaps this is my favourite subject..Sustainable tourism encompasses the responsible use of natural resources for recreation. This includes eco-friendly boating, scuba-diving, fishing, and tourism.

Ecotourism is defined as leisure travel that provides tourists with an educational and adventurous experience visiting complex and fascinating ecosystems and their associated cultures and traditions. The concept of ecotourism began in the late 1980s and increased in popularity in 2002 during the United Nations "International Year of Ecotourism." According to environmental and other organizations, ecotourism should have a minimal impact on both the environment and the culture. Ecotourism should inform tourists about what's needed to sustain the environment they're visiting, and should also help local populations understand the importance and value of their home. Ecotourism can also help foster a sense of environmental stewardship by encouraging travelers to be mindful of wasting resources and polluting the environment. Ecotourism can also help local economies by generating revenue and jobs, which further encourages the local population to preserve its environment.

WATER RESOURCES

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The ocean is one of Earth's most valuable natural resources. It provides food in the form of fish and shellfish—about 200 billion pounds are caught each year. It's used for transportation—both travel and shipping. It provides a treasured source of recreation for humans. It is mined for minerals (salt, sand, gravel, and some manganese, copper, nickel, iron and cobalt can be found in the deep sea) and drilled for crude oil.

The ocean plays a critical role in removing carbon from the atmosphere and providing oxygen. It regulates Earth's climate. The ocean is an increasingly important source of biomedical organisms with enormous potential for fighting disease. These are just a few examples of the importance of the ocean to life on land. Explore them in greater detail to understand why we must keep the ocean healthy for future generations....

Fishing Facts

The oceans have been fished for thousands of years and are an integral part of human society. Fish have been important to the world economy for all of these years, starting with the Viking trade of cod and then continuing with fisheries like those found in Lofoten, Europe, Italy, Portugal, Spain and India. Fisheries of today provide about 16% of the total world’s protein with higher percentages occurring in developing nations. Fisheries are still enormously important to the economy and well being of communities.

The word fisheries refers to all of the fishing activities in the ocean whether they are to obtain fish for the commercial fishing industry, for recreation, to obtain ornamental fish or fish oil. Fishing activities resulting in fish not used for consumption are called industrial fisheries. Fisheries are usually designated to certain ecoregions like the salmon fishery in Alaska, the Eastern Pacific tuna fishery or the Lofoten island cod fishery. Due to the relative abundance of fish on the continental shelf, fisheries are usually marine and not freshwater.

Although a world total of 86 million tons of fish were captured in 2000, China’s fisheries were the most productive, capturing a whopping one third of the total. Other countries producing the most fish were Peru, Japan, the United States, Chile, Indonesia, Russia, India, Thailand, Norway and Iceland- with Peru being the most and Iceland being the least. The number of fish caught varies with the years but appears to have leveled off at around 88 million tons per year possibly due to overfishing, economics and management practices.

Fish are caught in a variety of ways including one man casting nets, huge trawlers, seining, driftnetting, handlining, longlining, gillnetting and diving. Other than overfishing, fishing practices harmful to the environment are illegal and often used in developing countries where local fisherman have no other immediate choice.

The most common species making up the global fisheries are herring, cod, anchovy, flounder, tuna, shrimp, mullet, squid, crab, salmon, lobster, scallops and oyster. Mollusks and crustaceans are also widely sought. The fish that are caught are not always used for food. In fact, about 40% of fish are used for other purposes such as fishmeal to feed fish grown in captivity. For example cod is used for consumption but also to freeze for later use. Atlantic herring is used for canning, fishmeal and fish oil. The Atlantic menhaden is used for fishmeal and fish oil and Alaska Pollock is consumed but also used for fish paste to simulate crab. The Pacific cod has recently been used as a substitute for Atlantic cod which has been overfished.

The amount of fish available in the oceans is an ever-changing number due to the effects of both natural causes and human developments. It will be necessary to manage ocean fisheries in the coming years to make sure the number of fish caught never makes it to zero. A lack of fish greatly impacts the economy of communities dependent on the resource as can be seen in Japan, eastern Canada, New England, Indonesia and Alaska. The anchovy fisheries off the coast of western South America have already collapsed and with numbers dropping violently from 20 million tons to 4 million tons- they may never fully recover. Other collapses include the California sardine industry, the Alaskan king crab industry and the Canadian northern cod industry. In Massachusetts alone the cod, haddock and yellowtail flounder industries have collapsed causing an economic disaster for the area.

Due to the importance of fishing to the worldwide economy and the need for humans to understand human impacts on the environment, the academic division of fisheries science was developed. Fisheries science includes all aspects of marine biology in addition to economics and management skills and information. Marine conservation issues like overfishing, sustainable fisheries and management of fisheries are also examined through fisheries science.

In order for there to be plenty of fish in the years ahead, fisheries will have to develop sustainable fisheries and some will have to close. Due to the constant increase in the human population the oceans have been overfished with a resulting decline of fish crucial to the economy and communities of the world. The control of the world’s fisheries is a controversial subject, as they cannot produce enough to satisfy the demand, especially when there aren’t enough fish left to breed in healthy ecosystems. Scientists are often in the role of fisheries managers and must regulate the amount of fishing in the oceans, a position not popular with those who have to make a living fishing ever decreasing populations.

The two main questions facing fisheries management are:

1) What is the carrying capacity of the ocean? How many fish are there and how many of which type of fish should be caught to make fisheries sustainable?

2) How should fisheries resources be divided among people?

Fish populate the ocean in patches instead of being spread out throughout the enormous expanse. The photic zone is only 10-30 m or 30-100 ft deep near the coastline, a place where phytoplankton have enough solar energy to grow in abundance and fish have enough to eat. Most commercial fishing takes place in these coastal waters as well as estuaries and the slope of the continental shelf. High nutrient contents from upwelling, run-off, the regeneration of nutrients and other ecological processes supply fish in these areas with the necessary requirements for life. The blue color of the water near the coastlines is the result of chlorophyll contained in aquatic plant life.

Most fish are only found in very specific habitats. Shrimp are fished in river deltas that bring large amounts of freshwater into the ocean. The areas of highest productivity known as banks are actually where the continental shelf extends outward towards the ocean. These include the Georges Bank near Cape Cod, the Grand Banks near Newfoundland and Browns bank. Areas where the ocean is very shallow also contain many fish and include the middle and southern regions of the North Sea. Coastal upwelling areas can be found off of southwest Africa and off South America’s western coast. In the open ocean, tuna and other mobile species like yellowfin can be found in large amounts.

The question of how many fish there are in the ocean is a complicated one but can be simplified using populations of fish instead of individuals. The word “cohort” refers to the year the fish was born and is used to gather population statistics. Cohorts start off as eggs with an extremely high rate of mortality, which declines as the fish gets older. Juvenile fish close to the age where they can be fished are called recruits. Cohort mortality is tied in with the species of fish due to variances in natural mortality. The biomass of a particular cohort is greatest when fish are rapidly growing and decreases as the fish get older and start to die.

Scientists used theories and models to help determine the number and size of fish populations in the ocean. Production theory is the theory that production will be highest when the number of fish does not overwhelm the environment and there are not too few for genetic diversity of populations. The maximum sustainable yield is produced when the population is of intermediate size. Yield-per-recruit theory is the quest to determine the optimum age for harvesting fish. The theory of recruitment and stock allows scientists to make a guess about the optimum population size to encourage a larger population of recruits. All of the above theories must be flexible enough to allow natural fluctuations in the fish population to occur and still gather significant data. However, the theories are limited when taking into account the effect of humans on the environment and misinformation could result in overfishing or underfishing of the oceans resources.

Other factors that must be taken into account are the ecological requirements of individual fish species like predation and nutrition and why fish will often migrate to different areas. Water temperatures also influence the behavior of ecosystems causing an increase in metabolism and predation or a sort of hibernation. Even the amount of turbulence in the water can affect predator- prey relationships with more meetings between the two when waters are stirred up. Global warming could have a huge economic impact on the fisheries when fish stocks are forced to move to waters with more tolerable temperatures.

In many countries, commercial fishing has found more temporarily economical ways of catching fish including gill nets, purse seines, and drift nets. Although fish are trapped efficiently in one day using these fishing practices, the number of fish that are wasted this way has reached 27 million tons per year not to mention the crucial habitats destroyed that are essential for the regeneration of fish stocks. In addition, marine mammals and birds are also caught in these nets. The wasted fish and marine life is referred to as bycatch, an unfortunate side-effect of unsustainable fishing practices that can turn the ecosystem upside-down and leave huge amounts of dead matter in the water. Other human activities like trawling and dredging of the ocean floor have bulldozed over entire underwater habitats. The oyster habitat has been completely destroyed in many areas from the use of the oyster patent tong and sediment buildup draining from farm runoff.

Shipping

The word “shipping” refers to the activity of moving cargo with ships in between seaports. Wind-powered ships exist but more often ships are powered by steam turbine plants or diesel engines. Naval ships are usually responsible for transporting most of trade from one country to another and are called merchant navies. The various types of ships include container ships, tankers, crude oil ships, product ships, chemical ships, bulk carriers, cable layers, general cargo ships, offshore supply vessels, Dynamically Positioned ships, ferries, gas and car carriers, tugboats, barges and dredgers.

In theory, shipping can have a low impact on the environment. It is safe and profitible for economies around the world. However, serious problems occur with the shipping of oil, dumping of waste water into the ocean, chemical accidents at sea, and the inevitable air and water pollution occuring when modern day engines are used. Ships release air pollutants in the form of sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Chemicals dumped in the ocean from ships include chemicals from the ship itself, cleaning chemicals for machine parts, and cleaning supplies for living quarters. Large amounts of chemicals are often spilled into the ocean and sewage is not always treated properly or treated at all. Alien species riding in the ballast water of ships arrive in great numbers to crash native ecosystems and garbage is dumped over the side of many vessels. Dangerous industrial waste and harmful substances like halogenated hydrocarbons, water treatment chemicals, and antifouling paints are also dumped frequently. Ships and other watercraft with engines disturb the natural environment with loud noises, large waves, frequently striking and killing animals like manatees and dolphins.

Tourism

Tourism is the fastest growing division of the world economy and is responsible for more than 200 million jobs all over the world. In the US alone, tourism resulted in an economic gain of 478 billion dollars. With 700 million people traveling to another country in the year 2000, tourism is in the top five economic contributors to 83% of all countries and the most important economy for 38% of countries. The tourism industry is based on natural resources present in each country and usually negatively affect ecosystems because it is often left unmanaged. However, sustainable tourism can actually promote conservation of the environment.

The negative effects of tourism originate from the development of coastal habitats and the annihilation of entire ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands and estuaries. Garbage and sewage generated by visitors can add to the already existing solid waste and garbage disposal issues present in many communities. Often visitors produce more waste than locals, and much of it ends up as untreated sewage dumped in the ocean. The ecosystem must cope with eutrophication, or the loss of oxygen in the water due to excessive algal bloom as well as disease epidemics. Sewage can be used as reclaimed water to treat lawns so that fertilizers and pesticides do not seep into the ocean.

Other problems with tourism include the overexploitation of local seafood, the destruction of local habitats through careless scuba diving or snorkeling and the dropping of anchors on underwater features. Ecotourism and cultural tourism are a new trend that favors low impact tourism and fosters a respect for local cultures and ecosystems.

Mining

Humans began to mine the ocean floor for diamonds, gold, silver, metal ores like manganese nodules and gravel mines in the 1950s when the company, Tidal Diamonds, was established by Sam Collins. Diamonds are found in greater number and quality in the ocean than on land but are much harder to mine. When diamonds are mined, the ocean floor is dredged to bring it up to the boat and sift through the sediment for valuable gems. The process is difficult sediment is not easy to bring up to the surface but will probably become a huge industry once technology evolves to solve the logistical problem.

Metal compounds, gravels, sands and gas hydrates are also mined in the ocean. Mining of manganese nodules containing nickel, copper and cobalt began in the 1960’s and soon after it was discovered that Papua New Guinea was one of the few places where nodules were located in shallow waters rather than deep waters. Although manganese nodules could be found in shallow waters in significant quantities, the expense of bringing the ore up to the surface proved to be expensive. Sands and gravels are often mined for in the United States and are used to protect beaches and reduce the effects of erosion.

Mining the ocean can be devastating to the natural ecosystems. Dredging of any kind pulls up the ocean floor resulting in widespread destruction of marine animal habitats as well as wiping out vast numbers of fishes and invertebrates. When the ocean floor is mined, a cloud of sediment rises up in the water interfering with photosynthetic processes of phytoplankton and other marine life in addition to introducing previously benign heavy metals into the food chain. As minerals found on land are exploited and used up, mining of the ocean floor will increase.

Climate Buffer

The ocean is an integral component of the world’s climate due to its capacity to collect, drive and mix water, heat and carbon dioxide. The ocean can hold and circulate more water, heat and carbon dioxide than the atmosphere although the components of the Earth’s climate are constantly exchanged. Because the ocean can store so much heat, seasons occur later than they would and air above the ocean is warmed. Heat energy stored in the ocean in one season will affect the climate almost an entire season later. The ocean and the atmosphere work together to form complex weather phenomena like the North Atlantic Oscillation and El Nino. The ocean could also buffer events like the greenhouse effect or global warming, holding the heat energy for long periods of time to be released at a later date. The many chemical cycles occurring between the ocean and the atmosphere also influence the climate by controlling the amount of radiation released into ecosystems and our environment.

The atmosphere directly above the ocean does not absorb much heat by itself, so in order for it to warm up, the temperature of the ocean has to rise first. The two other ways for the atmosphere to warm near the ocean are by reflection of light off of the surface of the ocean or by the evaporation of water from the ocean surface. The temperature of the ocean controls the climate in the lower part of the atmosphere; so for most areas of the Earth the ocean temperature is responsible for the air temperature.

The main forms of climate buffering by the ocean are by the transport of heat through ocean currents traveling across huge basins. Areas like the tropics end up being cooled and higher latitudes are warmed by this effect. Air temperatures worldwide are regulated by the circulation of heat by the oceans. The ocean stores heat in the upper two meters of the photic zone. This is possible because seawater has a very high density and specific heat and can store vast quantities of energy in the form of heat. The ocean can then buffer changes in temperature by storing heat and releasing heat. Evaporation cools ocean water which cools the atmosphere. It is most noticeable near the equator and the effect decreases closer to the poles.

Oxygen Production

Gases in the atmosphere like carbon, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen are dissolved through the water cycle. The gases that are now crucial to all ecosystems and biological processes originally came from the inside layers of the earth during the period when the earth was first formed. The rate of flow for oxygen (as well as other gases) is controlled by biological processes, especially metabolism of organisms like prokaryotes and bacteria. Prokaryotes have been around since the beginning of the Earth, have evolved to be able to use chemical energy to create organic matter and are capable of both reducing and oxidizing inorganic compounds. Bacteria that can reduce inorganic compounds are anaerobic and those that oxidize inorganic compounds are aerobic. Aerobic bacteria release oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis.

Approximately 2 billion years ago, aerobic bacteria began producing oxygen which gradually filled up all of the oxygen reservoirs in the environment. Once these “sinks” were filled, molecular oxygen began to build in the atmosphere, creating an environment favorable for other life to inhabit the Earth. Sinks included reduced iron ions and hydrogen sulfide gas. Evidence of this process can be found in the banded iron formations created when iron minerals were precipitated. The oxygen started to fill the atmosphere up and new bacteria evolved that could use oxygen to oxidize both inorganic and organic compounds. Bacteria that were accustomed to an oxygen-poor atmosphere only survived in anaerobic environments like sewage, swamps, and in the sediments of both marine and freshwater areas.

Phytoplankton account for possibly 90% of the world’s oxygen production because water covers about 70% of the Earth and phytoplankton are abundant in the photic zone of the surface layers. Some of the oxygen produced by phytoplankton is absorbed by the ocean, but most flows into the atmosphere where it becomes available for oxygen dependent life forms.

DUMPING GROUND

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SEA AS DUMPING GROUND

Runoff and Pollution

Although the ocean covers two-thirds of the surface of the Earth, it is surprisingly vulnerable to human influences such as overfishing, pollution from run-off, and dumping of waste from human activity. This kind of pollution can have serious economic and health impacts by killing marine life and damaging habitats and ecosystems. Toxins from pesticides, fertilizers, and other chemicals used on farms contaminate nearby rivers that flow into the ocean, which can cause extensive loss of marine life in bays and estuaries leading to the creation of dead zones. The dumping of industrial, nuclear and other waste into oceans was legal until the early 1970s when it became regulated; however dumping still occurs illegally everywhere.

Ocean Dumping

Governments world-wide were urged by the 1972 Stockholm Conference to control the dumping of waste in their oceans by implementing new laws. The United Nations met in London after this recommendation to begin the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter which was implemented in 1975. The International Maritime Organization was given responsibility for this convention and a Protocol was finally adopted in 1996, a major step in the regulation of ocean dumping.

Waste in the Ocean

The most toxic waste material dumped into the ocean includes dredged material, industrial waste, sewage sludge, and radioactive waste. Dredging contributes about 80% of all waste dumped into the ocean adding up to several million tons of material dumped each year. Rivers, canals, and harbors are dredged to remove silt and sand build up or to establish new waterways. About 20-22% of dredged material is dumped into the ocean. The remainder is dumped into other waters or landfills and some is used for development. About 10% of all dredged material is polluted with heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, and chromium; hydrocarbons such as heavy oils; nutrients including phosphorous and nitrogen; and organochlorines from pesticides. Waterways and therefore silt and sand accumulate these toxins from land runoff, shipping practices, industrial and community waste, and other sources. When these materials find their way into the ocean, marine organisms suffer toxic effects and seafood is often contaminated

ALIEN SPECIES

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The introduction of non-native species to an ecosystem is one of the major causes of decreased biodiversity. Termed alien species, they are also known as exotic, introduced, non-indigenous, or invasive species. As the names imply, these species do not belong to ecosystems in which they are either intentionally or unintentionally placed. They tend to disrupt the ecosystem's balance by multiplying rapidly. These specise are often plants, fishes, mollusks, crustaceans, algae, bacteria or viruses.

Many alien species are tranferred into marine ecosystems through the ballast water transported during commercial shipping operations. Ship ballast water may transport up to 3,000 species around the world every day. Alien species are often introduced into freshwater ecosystems such as estuaries, rivers, lakes and streams by humans discarding animals or plants formerly held in captivity. In some cases, species used as bait can invade freshwater ecosystems. Well-known invasive species include the Northern Snakehead fish, the Zebra mussel, the Sea Lamprey and the Asiatic Clam, Corbicula fluminea.

Effects on Humans

The introduction of an alien species is often responsible for an increase in predation and competition, habitat reduction, a variety of diseases, extinction of native plants or animals and genetic change in populations. Certain strains of cholera have been transported in ballast water ending up in oyster beds and infecting finfish destined for the dinner table.

Alien Species Aboard

Alien species are often transported to non-native habitats in the ballast of ships. The organisms are taken in when ships attempt to balance their load by letting water into their holding tanks. When they reach their destination, the ballast water is released and with it any organisms picked up earlier. Mollusks and other organisms whose habitat includes marine substrate also attach to the surfaces ocean-going vessels at the point of departure and then fall into the water at the destination.

Unintentional introductions

Aquarium plants and animals, such as the invasive algae Caulerpa, as well as ornamental plants like the Purple loosestrife are released innocently into waterways by humans. They quickly overgrow eventually choking native plants and interfering with the water flow of lakes, rivers, estuaries, and streams. Unwanted exotic fish, such as the Red Lionfish, Pterois volitans, have invaded the waters of the Southeastern United States. The introduction of this nonnative species may cause problems becaues of its poisonous spines that divers or swimmers may be unaware of and it may also pose a risk to native species through predation or competition.

Intentional Introductions

Alien species like the Cane toad have been introduced intentionally to reduce the number of a native species in the area. Unfortunately, this plan can backfire when the animal multiples quickly and takes over the habitat and beyond. In Hawaii, for example, the Mongoose has eliminated many species of birds but it was originally introduced to keep the rat population down. The kudzu plant that blankets much of the southern United States was the result of a program sponsored by the government to control erosion.

HABITAT POBLEM

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The Problem

Habitat destruction is a huge problem in the marine environment. Habitats are destroyed by:

Destructive fishing activity: bottom trawling and dynamiting coral reefs destroy entire ecosystems.

Coastal development: habitats are destroyed when marshes are dredged for real estate development. Soil runoff and erosion result in excess nutrients from fertilizers and domestic sewage, which then leads to harmful algae blooms that block sunlight and deplete the water of oxygen. It also causes silt to build-up on coral reefs, which blocks sunlight necessary for coral to grow.

Pollution: development near coastal waters contaminates the Ocean with toxic substances, such as industrial chemicals, pesticides, and motor oil.

Dredging ship channels: Removes accumulated sediment and pollutants re-suspending them into the water. Dredging can also destroy sea grass beds and other habitats that provide food, shelter, and breeding grounds. The dredged material must be disposed of, and is often dumped into salt marshes damaging a very productive marine habitat.

Solutions

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs): marine sites such as sanctuaries, fisheries management areas, state conservation areas, and wildlife refuges established to protect habitats, endangered species, and to restore the health of marine ecosystems in areas jeopardized by habitat and species loss.

Marine Reserves: marine sites that provide a higher degree of ecosystem protection by prohibiting fishing, mineral extraction, and other habitat-altering activities. Marine Reserves are far more effective than MPAs, but unfortunately they are not as common

Land use and development regulation: An integrated approach to land use and management based on scientific knowledge is needed to protect coastal areas. Policy makers need to be informed on the impact coastal development is having on marine habitats through accessible and evidence-based information.

Monitoring and reporting: some conservation efforts are empowering the citizens with the responsibility for monitoring water quality in their coastal communities through sampling and testing, photographing fouled areas, and providing information to local policy makers for action.

Zoning: related to integrated land use and development management, zoning coastal areas into MPAs, Marine Reserves, approved fishing areas, with varying levels of use has the potential to slow some of the habitat degradation caused by development. The Great Barrier Reef is managed in this way. Through cooperation among local, state, and national governments, this approach may provide a viable solution to all stakeholders from tourists, to the fishing industry, to conservation efforts etc.

Although habitat destruction has been increasing for many years, the protection of marine habitats has only recently become an issue of critical importance to conservation efforts, local and national governments, and international marine conservation groups. The Ocean's invulnerability to human activity is now being realized as a myth. Coastal regions are still experiencing intense pressure by exploding coastal populations; however there are solutions at hand to prevent further damage from occurring.

Everyone knows that the Northern Spotted Owl is threatened because of destruction to the forests of the Pacific Northwest - but what will happen to the Pacific Seahorse if its habitat continues to decline? Due to the lack of a strong public sea ethic marine life doesn't appear on the conservation radar screen as much as its terrestrial counterparts, but ocean habitats are in decline as well, and therefore the creatures they support are too (which in turn support us). Most marine habitat destruction is caused by pollution, commercial fishing equipment, coastal development, and other human activity. Much of it can be avoided with simple measures

HABITAT CONSERVATION

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Habitat conservation for wild species is one of the most important issues facing the environment today - both in the ocean and on land. As human populations increase, land use increases, and wild species have smaller spaces to call home. More than half of Earth's terrestrial surface has been altered due to human activity, resulting in drastic deforestation, erosion and loss of topsoil, biodiversity loss, and extinction. Species cannot survive outside of their natural habitat without human intervention, such as the habitats found in a zoo or aquarium for example. Preserving habitats is essential to preserving biodiversity. Migratory species are particularly vulnerable to habitat destruction because they tend to inhabit more than one natural habitat. This creates the need to not only preserve the two habitats for migratory species, but also their migratory route. Altering a natural habitat even slightly can result in a domino effect that harms the entire ecosystem.

THE ENDANGERED SPECIES LIST

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Marine mammals

Marine mammals close to becoming an endangered species are categorized under threatened. These include: Eastern Stock of the Steller sea lion, Guadalupe fur seal, and the California sea Otter.

According to the Marine Mammal Protection Act or MMPA, species can also be called “depleted”. A depleted species is one whose numbers have dropped lower than the optimum sustainable population or OSP. The OSP is determined by whether the animals are reproducing in a healthy number that corresponds to the carrying capacity of the environment. When it is determined that a species has been depleted, the NMFS comes up with a plan to research factors involved and to bring the numbers back. Animals considered depleted are the North Atlantic Coastal bottlenose dolphin, the Eastern spinner dolphin, North Pacific fur seal, the Northeastern Offshore and Coastal spotted dolphins, and the Cook Inlet beluga whale. More information is being collected on “species of concern” which include the Cook Inlet Beluga whale and the orca (killer whale). The Eastern Pacific gray whale has been recovered by the Endangered Species Act and was actually taken off the list. The Steller’s Sea cow was lost forever shortly before the MMPA and ESA were implemented.

Pinnipeds are seals, sea lions or walruses but are taxonomically relatives of bears, dogs, raccoons, otters or weasels. The families under pinnipedia include Phocidae, Otariidae and Odobenidae which are earless seals, fur seals or sea lions, and walrus respectively. The main reason for the loss of many pinnipeds is the amount of commercial fishing that took place from the 1700's up to the 1900's. Other reasons include the development of coastline and lack of fish due to overfishing.

Another group of marine mammals affected by commercial hunting between the 1700's and the 1900's were the baleen whales. Populations of baleen whales are still low in numbers even though commercial hunting is now mostly illegal. Many whales are still being hit and killed by ships, particularly the critically endangered northern right whale. Whales are also tangled in fishing gear or marine garbage. Sometimes something as small as a party balloon can kill a whale by cutting off its digestive tract.

Marine invertebrates

Marine invertebrates and plants are currently listed under the “candidates or species of concern” category in the Endangered Species Act due to a lack of information or time. These include Brachiopods, Corals, Mollusks, and various plant life. Brachiopods are invertebrates that live on the seafloor and feed through a filter appendage. They are attached to objects in the ocean and resemble a clam. Brachiopods reached the peak of their numbers in the Paleozoic era and were reduced greatly during the Permo-Triassic mass extinction. The two classes or types of brachiopods are the Inarticulata and the Articulata. Reasons for decline in number of brachiopods include habitat destruction, overfishing, pollution and sediment accumulation, general vulnerability to stress, and small numbers.

Corals are made of invertebrate polyps and are either hard or soft. They have been around for 500 million years since the Cambrian period. Hard corals are composed of calcium carbonate and they live symbiotically with zooxanthellae, a type of phytoplankton. Soft corals have calcareous pieces of matter in their structure and are usually found independently in deeper waters. All corals are related to anemones, hydras or jellyfish. There is only one class of coral and that is Anthozoa. Subclasses include Alcyonaria, Ceriantipatharia, Hexacorallia, and Zoantharia. In consideration for endangered status are the Elkhorn coral, Staghorn, Ivory-bush, and Hawaiian reef corals (Order Scleractinia). Corals have declined drastically in numbers due to disease epidemics since the 80's, destruction of habitat, accumulation of sediment, a changing food chain resulting in increased predation, hurricanes, pollutants, alien species, invasive species like green algae, small numbers, fishing practices, and bleaching of corals due to temperature changes (and more).

Mollusks are invertebrates and most of them are in the Class Gastropoda which means stomach foot in Latin. They have a soft body are often found with a shell although they can also have an internal shell or no shell. Related to segmented worms and pogonophora, there are seven Classes of mollusks including Aplacophora, Bivalvia, Cephalopoda, Gastropoda, Monoplacophora, Polyplacophora, and Scaphopoda. Animals qualifying as species of concern include: black abalone, green abalone, pink abalone, and pinto abalone. The white abalone is currently classified as endangered. The abalone has been overfished, numbers decreased, genetic diversity has been lost, it has been subjected to disease, poachers and changes in the food chain resulting in an increase in predation.

Marine Plants

Most marine plants include types of seagrass, types of mangroves and types of algae. Mangroves and seagrasses are flowering plants and use pollen to reproduce. They are often found close to the coast. Algae can be anything from tiny phytoplankton to huge seaweeds. So far, Johnson’s seagrass is listed as threatened although many other plants should be on the list. Plants are mostly lost when humans change the habitat, natural events change the environment or oxygen is used up by organisms thriving in nutrient enriched areas (caused by humans).

Sea Turtles

Sea turtles are another animal threatened by extinction in the oceans. With aerodynamic bodies, oversized flippers and the ability to breathe air, these unique animals live in tropical or subtropical oceans all over the planet. The United States is visited by 6 of the 7 types of sea turtles including the green, hawksbill, Kemp's ridley, leatherback, loggerhead and the olive ridley. Sea turtles rely on undisturbed beaches to lay eggs and can travel huge distances to feed or nest.

The green turtle is endangered or threatened, the hawksbill turtle is endangered, Kemp's ridley turtle is endangered, the leatherback turtle is endangered, the loggerhead turtle is threatened, and the olive ridley turtle is endangered or threatened. The NOAA fisheries are primarily in charge of the conservation and restoration of these species although the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service shares jurisdiction.

The major reasons why sea turtles are declining in numbers include development or destruction of nesting and foraging places, accidental tangling in nets or lines, tangling in marine garbage and being hit by boats or motor craft. Regulations on gillnets, longlines, pound nets and trawls have been established by the NOAA fisheries and certain areas crucial for sea turtles have been roped off at important times. It is also important to handle sea turtles in a certain way and there are now regulations for this as well. Comprehensive strategies, research and management efforts are in the process of being developed so that the sea turtle can recover. In addition to nation-wide programs, the NOAA also has national and international programs.

Marine and anadromous fish

Marine and anadromous (born in fresh water first) fish are also under protection by the NOAA. Anadromous fish start out in freshwater, go to salt water and then return to freshwater. Marine fish spend their entire lives in salt water. Most fish listed under the Endangered Species Act are Pacific salmonids and have been listed as Evolutionary Significant Units. Other types of fish listed are Atlantic salmon, shortnose sturgeon, smalltooth sawfish and the Gulf sturgeon.

ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT

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The Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966 was established in the U.S. to protect species facing possible extinction, but it only covers native species and the extent to which they are protected is extremely limited. In 1969, the Departments of the Interior, Agriculture, and Defense passed the Endangered Species Conservation Act to prevent a mass extinction event in certain species. The use of endangered species by humans for food, fur, and other commercial uses was outlawed by this act and by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. In 1973, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) of Wild Fauna and Flora was implemented to cut back on the trade of plants and animals in trouble. The 1973 Endangered Species Act is one of the most significant environmental laws in America and defines endangered or threatened species, puts plants and invertebrates under protection, requires federal agencies to start programs to conserve important habitats, creates a wide umbrella of laws against hunting for endangered species, and matches contributions from individual states towards the project. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are responsible for the enforcement of the Endangered Species Act.

Scientific Research

Scientists and the general population are also worried that if the destruction of biodiversity continues at the current rate, a mass extinction event will eventually take place. Many species go extinct before there is time to save them. Without protection, resources like global fisheries and future medicines may be lost forever unless adequate policy, scientific research, and individual actions can prevent further loss.

ENDANGERED SHELLFISH

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Not enough data

Smaller corals, invertebrates, and fish are crucial components to the ecosystem. There are about 11,000 species less than 1-2 mm and about 15% of those have highly specific niches. Data on populations of small invertebrates and marine fish is difficult to collect. There is data for larger species that indicates huge losses of parrotfish, humphead wrasse, and grouper. Spiny lobsters are now very hard to find in any coral reef and the coconut crab is now only located in protected areas and tiny islands. Genetic diversity, habitat diversity, and species diversity must work together for the global ecosystem to function.

Definitions

The definition of a threatened species is one that may become extinct if measures aren't taken to protect it. An endangered species is one that has a very small population and at greater risk of becoming extinct. Many species that become extinct never make it to the endangered species list.

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES - CAUSE OF DESTRUCTION IN SOUTH CHINA SEA (TIOMAN AREA)

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Until recently, humankind seemed to view the ocean as a source of infinite resources. Its vast size and depth and unexplored frontiers made the ocean appear invulnerable to overexploitation. The truth is that the populations of many species are decreasing at an unsustainable rate, and the number of species listed as endangered from marine life families such as whales, dolphins, manatees and dugongs, salmon, seabirds, sea turtles, and sharks to name a few, are on the rise. Although it is difficult to perceive because marine life is not as visible as animals on land, it is equally if not more vulnerable to problems such as habitat destruction and overexploitation. Shallow water animals that breathe air, like turtles, manatees (dugongs), and whales are often hit by boats and caught in fishing gear. Species such as turtles that lay their eggs on land often lose their nurseries due to coastal development. Animals that have taken millions of years to evolve, that are invaluable to the ecosystem, have vanished from places were they once flourished.

Causes of destruction

The destruction of habitats, the spread of disease, pollution, and unsustainable fishing practices are directly related to the actions of humans and recovery from these problems is rarely straightforward. Many marine species live in small, specific habitats while others require protection across their migration routes that cover vast areas and include breeding and feeding grounds. Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been designated in many places worldwide, which can help protect and restore threatened species, but MPAs are limited in size and therefore limited to the marine life that inhabits those areas.

TOWARDS BIODIVERSITY...WHAT IS BEING DONE..?

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What is being done?

New global agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity mentioned above, are helping nations recognize the existing value of their natural resources and its value to future generations. The Convention was developed during the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro where world leaders agreed on a comprehensive strategy for "sustainable development" that meets our needs while ensuring that the Earth’s resources will be sustained for future generations. This agreement established good stewardship of these resources as nations continue to build economic development. The three main goals of the Convention are:

Conservation of biological diversity

Sustainable use of its components

Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits from the use of genetic resources

The agreement commits countries to conserving biodiversity, developing tools for sustainability, and sharing the benefits that result from their use. The Convention is increasing equitable access to resources by giving sovereign national rights over biological resources. For example, if "bioprospecting", or research on biological resources for science, is allowed in a specific biodiversity-rich country, the "host" country must also receive a share of the benefits.

Marine Conservation Biology Institute (MCBI)

MCBI works to protect and restore marine life on the West Coast, around the United States and beyond, by encouraging research and training in marine conservation biology; bringing scientists together to examine crucial marine conservation issues; doing policy research to frame the marine conservation agenda; lecturing, producing books and other publications to educate scientists, the public and decision makers on key issues, and building partnerships to solve problems affecting marine life and people.

GBIF, the Global Biodiversity Information Facility, makes it possible for policy- and decision-makers, research scientists and the general public all around the world to electronically access the world's supply of primary scientific data on biodiversity.

Center for Applied Biodiversity Science

The mission of the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science (CABS) is to strengthen Conservation International’s ability to identify and respond to elements that threaten the earth’s biological diversity. CABS brings together leading experts in science and technology to collect and interpret data about biodiversity, develop strategic plans for conservation, and forge partnerships in all sectors that promote conservation goals. CABS promotes public awareness and involvement in saving the planet’s living resources.

"Today’s mass extinctions are unlike mass extinctions in the geologic past, in which tens of thousands of species died out following massive catastrophes such as asteroid collisions with the Earth and dramatic temperature changes—today's extinctions have a human face." - Richard B. Primack, Boston University, Essentials of Conservation Biology, p. 3, 2002

» Chapter 4: Biodiversity by Dr. Peter Moyle

"This chapter will review the concept of biodiversity and then describe general patterns in the global distribution of vertebrates and the reasons why we are losing biodiversity so rapidly. The purpose of the chapter is to give some indication of what we humans stand to lose if we let present trends continue. We start by giving some definitions of biodiversity, then discuss species diversity, focusing on vertebrates, followed by a discussion of species numbers in relation to biogeography. The final section of the chapter is devoted to extinction, the loss of biodiversity."

» 15,589 Species at Risk of Extinction

"It is clear that the situation facing our species is serious and getting worse. We must refocus and rethink the way in which society must respond to this global threat," says Achim Steiner, IUCN’s Director General. "While most threats to biodiversity are human-driven, human actions alone can prevent many species from becoming extinct."

» Planetary Biodiversity Inventories - Mission to an (almost) unknown planet (NSF Fact Sheet) - What kinds of living things exist? Where do they live? How are they related? These are simple questions, but have few answers. Were life to be discovered today on another planet, resources would quickly be mustered to inventory its diversity. Yet we remain ignorant about most of the diversity of life on Earth. To date, only 5 to 15 percent of all life on our home base has been discovered and described.

BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY

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Why Biodiversity is important?

All species are an integral part of their ecosystem by performing specific functions that are often essential to their ecosystems and often to human survival as well. Some of the functions different species provide are to:

Capture and store energy

Produce organic material

Decompose organic material

Cycle water and nutrients

Control erosion or pests

Help regulate climate and atmospheric gases

Ecosystem diversity is important for primary production in terms of:

Soil fertility

Plant pollination

Predator control

Waste decomposition

Removing species from ecosystems removes those important functions. Therefore, the greater the diversity of an ecosystem the better it can maintain balance and productivity and withstand environmental stressors.

Biodiversity is important economically in terms of:

Food resources: agriculture, livestock, fish and seafood

Biomedical research: coral reefs are home to thousands of species that may be developed into pharmaceuticals to maintain human health and to treat and cure disease

Industry: textiles, building materials, cosmetics, etc.

Tourism and recreation: Beaches, forests, parks, ecotourism

Biodiversity has an intrinsic value because all species:

Provide value beyond their economic, scientific, and ecological contributions

Are part of our cultural and spiritual heritage

Are valuable simply for their beauty and individuality

Have a right to exist on this planet

Human’s have an ethical responsibility to protect biodiversity. Biodiversity is important to science because it helps humans understand how life evolved and continues to evolve and it provides an understanding on how ecosystems work and how we can help maintain them.

WHY BIODIVERSITY IS IMPORTANT

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What is Biological Diversity or Biodiversity?Biodiversity or biological diversity is defined by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity as:

"The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia [among other things], terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems."

THE IMPLICATIONS

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HUMAN IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGING

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All these changes, whether we recognize it or not, are connected to us. Anything that happens to the ocean will affect our lives. Sea levels rising and creating dozens of underwater cities will undoubtedly affect us, of course, because a quarter of the world’s population will be driven inward. All major cities will be filled up to unimaginable congestion; food and water will become in very short supply, good relations will break down, housing will be unavailable, homelessness and poverty will overwhelm. This could happen in twenty years or less. However, we will feel the impact in other ways, as well.

As sea life dwindles in the oceans, it will mean fewer and fewer jobs for anyone dependent on resources from the sea. As well, public aquarium centers and personal saltwater aquariums will become cathedrals for marine life that no longer exists. As major parts of world economies break down, the last remaining marine species preserved by humankind within glass enclosures will come to haunt us, as these isolated, ephemeral, and fleeting creatures make for us memories of a planet once defined not by its land, but by its ocean. Already today, hundreds of years of overfishing have resulted in an empty ocean through which immense populations of wildlife once swam. There is now less of everything, and more of nothing.

Global warming will make memories out of many living things, and as we remember the bounty of life that this planet used to support, we will feel shame. Unless we do everything we can to slow climate change, protect what is left and restore part of what we have lost.

However, none of this has to come to pass. We can protect the future by realizing that no one is born a conservationist. A conservationist is shaped and inspired by world events: these events, this world. Human beings have always been at their best when things are at their worst. We can no longer wait for the worst to come before we reveal what is best within us. Now is the only time for that.

Human Impact on Climate Change

Whether or not the planet is warming at accelerated rates, likely caused by human activity, is no longer a topic of debate. The data can no longer be disputed.

The terms "global warming" and "climate change" are used interchangeably. However, "global warming" implies the warming of our planet due to a direct human influence while "climate change" is more accurately used to describe changes in climate due to natural fluctuations, such as the processes that produce the Ice Ages.

The scientific evidence in support of global warming continues to mount and the media is increasingly highlighting the topic to inform us of the very real dangers involved in global warming. Common media images include polar bears that are no longer able to find enough ice to survive and often drown in search of food. Glaciers in the Arctic and Greenland are breaking apart at unprecedented speed, causing sea levels to rise. The ocean's temperature is rising; as a result, we are witnessing marine species forced to migrate from habitats they have lived in for at least thousands of years in search of more hospitable areas.

Recently, some island nations and communities have actually begun evacuation procedures as rising seas flood their homes and land. Rising sea levels caused by the expansion of sea water as it warms and the melting of glaciers has caused a 1 mm increase in sea level, which translates to a shoreline retreat of about 1.5 meters. This has been seen in the U.S. along the Atlantic Coast where erosion has narrowed beaches and washed out houses. In other countries, such as the Tuvalu Islands in the Pacific, communities are planning their moves as their homelands are slowly submerged. Other currently threatened nations include the Cook and the Marshall Islands, where one island (Majuro) has lost up to 20% of its beachfront already.

Human Impact on Climate Change

Whether or not the planet is warming at accelerated rates, likely caused by human activity, is no longer a topic of debate. The data can no longThe terms "global warming" and "climate change" are used interchangeably. However, "global warming" implies the warming of our planet due to a direct human influence while "climate change" is more accurately used to describe changes in climate due to natural fluctuations, such as the processes that produce the Ice Ages.

The scientific evidence in support of global warming continues to mount and the media is increasingly highlighting the topic to inform us of the very real dangers involved in global warming. Common media images include polar bears that are no longer able to find enough ice to survive and often drown in search of food. Glaciers in the Arctic and Greenland are breaking apart at unprecedented speed, causing sea levels to rise. The ocean's temperature is rising; as a result, we are witnessing marine species forced to migrate from habitats they have lived in for at least thousands of years in search of more hospitable areas.

Recently, some island nations and communities have actually begun evacuation procedures as rising seas flood their homes and land. Rising sea levels caused by the expansion of sea water as it wa

Scientists have recently discovered that the basic chemistry of the ocean is being altered by excess carbon dioxide absorption, which threatens marine organisms by increasing acidification. Acidification is caused by a reaction between CO2 and H2O, which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid increases the acidity of ocean waters by lowering the pH which inhibits the reaction organisms (e.g., coccolithophores - one of the most abundant phytoplankton in the ocean, corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, crustaceans, and some mollusks, especially pteropods) use to secrete skeletal structures and shells made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). With increasing acidity, every marine species that constructs skeletons and shells of CaCO3 will find it more difficult to survive in shell-producing marine organisms could be disastrous for nearly all ocean ecosystems. Increasing acidity will also undoubtedly effect numerous reproductive and/or physiological processes in other marine species with unknown consequences.

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

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The Greenhouse EffectCurrent climate models (simulations) based on estimates of increasing CO2 and, to a lesser extent, by decreasing sulfate aerosols, predict that temperatures will increase by 1.4-5.8°C (2.5-10.4°F) between 1990-2100. This is a somewhat wide range, however it is difficult to predict CO2 emissions because of the number of variables involved. Some climate studies have shown that, even in the absence of the CO2 emission variable, global climate will increase by 0.5°C (0.9°F) over the next one hundred years due to warming caused just by the ocean. In addition, models predict that sea levels will rise by about 10 cm over the next century.

Evidence of global warming includes decreased snowfall, rising sea levels and changes to weather trends. Precipitation levels, precipitation patterns, cloud cover, severe weather, and other elements will be impacted by the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. "Greenhouse gases" are so named because they trap radiant energy from the sun that would otherwise be radiated back into space.

Climate Change FAQ from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UC San Diego »

The Kyoto Protocol was developed by theUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) as an international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. The Protocol was entered into force in February 2005, and signed by countries committed to reducing CO2 emissions and 5 other greenhouse gases. They may also engage in emissions trading, or the purchase of credits from other countries that remain under the limits of greenhouse gas emissions. In this way, countries that may exceed the limits can still comply with the protocol. To date, 141 countries have ratified the agreement. Unfortunately, neither the United States nor Australia have been participating, which has generated speculation as to whether the Kyoto Protocol will successfully reduce greenhouse gases, even if completely implemented by all signed countries.

Global climate change has been studied on a large scale based on analyses of global temperature fluctuations over thousands of years; for example, since the last Ice Age, which occurred approximately 12,000 years ago, global temperatures have been relatively stable. Studies on a smaller scale, however, show that temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.08 and 0.22°C per decade since 1979. Still these modern day changes are not always linear, which has created a source of debate within the scientific community and the news media.

The study of paleoclimatology (ancient climates) is increasingly linked to modern day climate study. For example, the Earth was in an ice age for the last 160,000 years prior to the end of the last Ice Age. Earlier studies of this time period showed little variability in temperatures, however more recent studies showed the variability to be about twice as great as previously published, indicating that temperature fluctuations are more frequent throughout time than first thought. However, this does not negate the impact of human activity on the current rate of global warming.

Climate change is caused by both through natural and external forces, the latter including both human—greenhouse gases—and non-human causes such as changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun, solar activity, and volcanic emissions. Science is increasingly pointing to human activities as the reason that global warming is accelerating.

The greenhouse gas theory started in the 19th century when the Swedish chemist and 1903 Nobel Laureate, Svante Arrhenius, determined that increases in greenhouse gas concentration would lead to higher global mean temperatures while decreases would lead to colder global mean temperatures. His finding was a result of his research on ice ages, and was largely rejected by his peers at the time. A colleague of Arrhenius, Arvid Högbom, was one of the first scientists to study the carbon cycle. Arrhenius used his data to base his assessment that in 1890 emission and absorption of CO2 in the atmosphere were roughly in balance, and that burning fossil fuels would not cause problems. However, this was based solely on the use of coal, not on the use of fossil fuels in the automobile and other industries.

The acceptance that human greenhouse gas emissions are contributing to the warming of the Earth's atmosphere is increasing, however opponents to this theory remain, largely due to several confounding factors to the theory. For example, water vapor, naturally present in the Earth's atmosphere in the form of humidity and clouds, is also a strong greenhouse gas. The vapor affects the climate by cooling the Earth's surface by reflecting sunlight and blocking radiation of heat away from the surface. The presence of CO2 may alter the distribution of clouds, in which case the climate could be further affected by human generated greenhouse gases. However the extent to which CO2 emissions alter cloud cover is not well known. In the 2001IPCC report on climate change, changes in cloud cover were mentioned as an important factor in predicting future climate change.

Opponents to the global warming theory postulate that water vapor and clouds will cancel out warming effect of CO2 emissions. However, the warming trends over the past few decades are increasingly negating the cancellation hypothesis. Furthermore, sophisticated computer models of the climate, validated by the scientific community by demonstrating accurate simulations of known climate variations such as El Nino event have predicted that adding CO2 to the atmosphere will create a warmer climate in the future. The degree to which this warming will occur varies by model, however, and opponents of the global warming theory point out variables that models are not equipped to factor, such as changes in vegetation and cloud cover.

In spite of the dying debate, it is known that coal-burning power plants, automobile exhausts, factory smokestacks, and other waste vents contribute about 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide (6 billion tons of pure carbon) and other greenhouse gases into the earth's atmosphere each year. CO2 levels have increased by about 31% since 1750, about 75% of which can be attributed to fossil fuel burning. The remaining 25% is largely due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.

In their 2006 report, the IPCC stated that the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has exceeded levels over the natural range for the last 650,000 years. The consensus is that human activity is, in almost all aspects of global warming, the most likely cause. This is a change from the previous report that stated human activity was merely a likely cause.

GLOBAL WARMING

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What is Global Warming aka Climate Change?

Global warming is the increase of the average temperature in the atmosphere and oceans over time due primarily to human influences. Since the late 19th century, scientists have monitored the fluctuations in temperature and studied global warming theories and trends to determine the causes and to assess the extent to which they are due to human activity. The greenhouse effect is largely caused by human-generated carbon dioxide and, to some extent, by increases in solar activity. The term "global warming" is used to imply a human influence while "climate change" is most often used in association with changes in climate with no easily identifiable cause, such as the processes producing the Ice Ages.

SEA ETHIC

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"Extending a sea ethic would mean recognizing the ocean’s importance to the continued existence of life on our planet and to human futures. From this recognition would flow an appropriate sense of moral imperative, commitment, and urgency—urgency toward ending overfishing and wasteful bycatch and aggressively rebuilding depleted ocean wildlife populations, stabilizing human effects on world climate, slowing habitat destruction, stemming global transport and accidental introduction of "alien" species, curbing the flow of contaminants and trash, developing sustainable seafood farming, cultivating an informed approach to the seafood marketplace, and implementing networks of protected areas in the sea." - Excerpt from Launching a Sea Ethic book

MARINE CONSERVATION

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The emerging science of Marine Conservation Biology aims to address the rapidly deteriorating state of marine life by applying science to marine conservation.

Marine Conservation Biology, like Conservation Biology, is a multi-disciplinary approach to providing the data needed to prevent the loss of marine biodiversity. Data on the threats to the marine environment are urgently needed to inform policymakers and other stakeholders on the most critical problems that need to be addressed. The study of marine conservation biology facilitates the cross-pollination of a number of disciplines in marine science including marine biology, ecology, ichthyology, oceanography, biological oceanography, and others so that scientific data can be used to help solve problems effectively and sustainably.

The numerous challenges facing the oceans are complex. Fish stocks are declining an alarming rate; many have already collapsed beyond repair.

The list of marine species listed as threatened or in danger of extinction grows longer every year. The world's coral reefs, home to the greatest biodiversity of marine fishes, are deteriorating due to destructive fishing practices and bleaching. Mercury levels in many commercially fished species are at an all time high. Dead zones and algae blooms are increasing in both size and number.

Without the scientific understanding and the data needed to demonstrate the magnitude of these problems they will not be resolved. The science of marine conservation biology is greatly needed to prevent further destruction and to reverse the damage already done.

ABOUT TIOMAN ISLAND

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Pulau Tioman (Pulau is Malay for Island) is the largest island on the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. It is located in the South China Sea, approximately 32 km from Mersing, the closest mainland port. Measuring some 22 km long and 11 km at the widest point, the island has a total land area of 133.6 sq. km.

Pulau Tioman now belongs to the state of Pahang in Peninsular Malaysia. In its early history, Pulau Tioman was known as a stopover for sailors, fishermen and traders to get fresh water and firewood or simply for evading storms. The island was a settlement for Malay fishermen several hundred years ago and there are now six major kampungs (villages) on the island, mainly on the west coast. The number of villagers is now some 2,650, most of who were originally fishermen from Pahang or Johor. Rubber and coconut are the main crops planted on the flat coastal area.

Tioman has beautiful beaches with surrounding marine areas. The landscape and the beauty of the island have attracted many tourists, locally as well as from abroad, and the island was once voted one of the 10 most beautiful in the world. In addition to fishing activities, tourism has become a very important income generating activity on the island. Many tourist facilities such as chalets, rest houses and hotels have been built, either by the state government or the private sector. While it is fair to say that development over the last 10 years has had some adverse impact on the islands' environment, it remains a beautiful and restful place.

Apart from beautiful beaches and marine ecosystems, Tioman has also been gazetted as a wildlife reserve by the state government to protect its flora and fauna. This gazzetement was done on 28 September 1972 for the inland forest area encompassing 12,383 ha, but in 1994 part of this area was excised for agriculture development and tourism activities.

The marine area around Pulau Tioman and eight other nearby islands have also been gazzetted as marine parks and marine reserves confined to an , area two nautical miles from the coast. The establishment of the marine parks and reserves is to conserve and protect marine flora and fauna such as fishes, coral reefs and aquatic floras from being destroyed by fishing and other human activities.

It is thought that Tioman was only separated from the mainland 10,000 years ago, before which much of South East Asia was dry land, with sea levels about 300 feet lower than current depths. Today, most of the island is covered by tropical rain forest dating from the last ice age, with hilly topography, inland forest and small flat land areas along the coast. Walking over the island through the jungle is a popular activity for visitors. Pulau Tioman is underlaid by volcanic, plutonic and contact metamorphic rocks. The volcanic rocks occur mainly on the eastern, northern and southern parts of the island.

Part of the island coastal area is made up of rocky, sandy beaches. Several river systems coming from the hilly-forested areas represent the main supply of fresh water to the villagers. Small patches of mangrove swamp forests are also found on the western part of the island

ABOUT US

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We currently protect one area in Tioman Island called The Monkey Bay. This is the untouched white sandy beach. Very rare you can see tourists here. The only way to access to The Monkey Bay is to hike from Kampung Salang which will take around one hour each way. (if only you have the guts and enjoy to see the monkeys and lizards)We hope one day we can built our own research center here.

Climate Changing

2009-05-15T12:05:00.000-07:00

Global Warming aka Climate Changing

What is Global Warming aka Climate Change?Global warming is the increase of the average temperature in the atmosphere and oceans over time due primarily to human influences. Since the late 19th century, scientists have monitored the fluctuations in temperature and studied global warming theories and trends to determine the causes and to assess the extent to which they are due to human activity. The greenhouse effect is largely caused by human-generated carbon dioxide and, to some extent, by increases in solar activity. The term "global warming" is used to imply a human influence while "climate change" is most often used in association with changes in climate with no easily identifiable cause, such as the processes producing the Ice Ages.

What is the impact to Tioman Island?

- Rising sea level every year

Spring 2009 what a great start

2009-05-15T05:42:00.000-07:00

What a great weather now in Denmark..Sun is shiny, flowers are blooming, bird are chirping and people are smiling(even more than usual).

As known to many, I am the Founder of Tioman Oceanography but live in Denmark. I love Tioman Island. I love Malaysia. Of all the places I have lived and travelled, Tioman always waving me to come back there. Well..those who visited Tioman Island knew what are the X-factors lies on the island, the nature (but not the phython and the riverlizard..well..im still scared of them though they seems to be puzzled everytime I screamed as they passed infront of me) the waterfall, the mountain, the jungle trek, the marine lifes(of course), diving and snorkeling pleasures..hemm..i wanna go back there again.

I decided to start my Tioman Oceanography blogspot now to create awareness as the World Heritage Status for Tioman Island will be celebrate (soon)...in this near future. So, u guys out there, read and support us at the Tioman Oceanography.com.